Allusions in Ithaka

The poem "Ithaka" (printed below) by Cavafy, a modern Greek poet, makes several references to the Odyssey. What are some of those allusions and how do they help us understand the poem?

As you set out for Ithaka
hope your road is a long one,
full of adventure, full of discovery.
Laistrygonians, Cyclops,
angry Poseidon-don't be afraid of them:
you'll never find things like that on your way
as long as you keep your thoughts raised high,
as long as a rare excitement
stirs your spirit and your body.
Laistrygonians, Cyclops,
wild Poseidon-you won't encounter them
unless you bring them along inside your soul,
unless your soul sets them up in front of you.

Hope your road is a long one.
May there be many summer mornings when,
with what pleasure, what joy,
you enter harbors you're seeing for the first time;
may you stop at Phoenician trading stations
to buy fine things,
mother of pearl and coral, amber and ebony,
sensual perfume of every kind-
as many sensual perfumes as you can;
and may you visit many Egyptian cities
to learn and go on learning from their scholars.

Keep Ithaka always in your mind.
Arriving there is what you're destined for.
But don't hurry the journey at all.
Better if it lasts for years,
so you're old by the time you reach the island,
wealthy with all you've gained on the way,
not expecting Ithaka to make you rich.
Ithaka gave you the marvelous journey.
Without her you wouldn't have set out.
She has nothing left to give you now.

And if you find her poor, Ithaka won't have fooled you.
Wise as you will have become, so full of experience,
you'll have understood by then what these Ithakas mean.

(1911)

Odysseus vs. Rama

Both the Odyssey and the Ramayana feature a hero who suffers a series of misfortunes. They both are separated from their wives and risk losing them to another man. Both heroes also undertake a journey. How are Odysseus and Rama similar? How are they different? In what ways are their journeys similar or different? How does Gilgamesh and his journey fit into this picture?

Is the Slaughter Justified?

In Book 22 Odysseus with the aid of his son and loyal servants slaughters all the suitors (despite the pleas of mercy from some of them), all the maids, and even the priest Leodes. Are these killings justified? Could he have punished them without killing them? Could he have driven them from the house. Are some of the killings justified, but others not? What about the people they spared (Phemius and Medon) -- what was Telemachus' reasoning? Was it wise or prudent to kill them all?

She Love Me, She Loves Me Not . . .

In Book 19, Penelope shares an intimate moment with her guest, Odysseus disguised as a beggar. From the things they discuss is there any hint that Penelope suspects the beggar is her long lost husband? Does Odysseus think she may suspect him? Why doesn't he openly reveal his identity? Does he still doubt her fidelity, her loyalty or her love?

What Has Odysseus Learned?

In Book 18, Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, “[a]nd the one who knew the world” (144), comments to one of the kinder suitors:

So I will tell you something. Listen. Listen closely.
Of all that breathes and crawls across the earth,
our mother earth breeds nothing feebler than a man.
So long as the gods grant him power, spring in his knees,
he thinks he will never suffer affliction down the years.
But then, when the happy gods bring on the long hard times,
bear them he must, against his will, and steel his heart.
Our lives, our mood and mind as we pass across the earth
turn as the days turn . .
as the father or men and gods makes each day dawn.
I, too, seemed destined to be a man of fortune once
and a wild wicked swath I cut, indulged my lust for violence,
staking all on my father and my brothers.
Look at me now.
And so, I say, let no man be lawless all his life,
just take in peace what gifts the gods will send (18.149-63)


What do the lines above reveal about the impact of Odysseus own journey on him? What has he learned? What insights has he gained? What values does he advocate? What other episodes in the poem up to this point contribute to the viewpoint expressed by Odysseus in these lines? Is Odysseus' journey similar or different to Telemachus' journey to manhood? Has Odysseus changed (has he renounced any of his former values or beliefs)?

Argos

In Book 17 Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, encounters his faithful dog Argos, flea-infested and laying on a pile of dung. At the moment the dog recognizes his master he dies. What is the significance of this incident? Another chink in the emotional armor of Odysseus? Another example of the abuse that loyal servants of Odysseus must endure under the suitors? An example of the subservient status of animals in the world of the Odyssey? Are animals the play things, pawns, and victims of humans in the same way that we humans are the playthings of the gods? Is Argos a symbol for Odysseus himself?

Is Telemachus Ready?

Upon hearing his father's plan to gain revenge upon the suitors, Telemachus boasts, "Soon enough, father, . . . /you'll sense the courage inside me that I know-- / I'm hardly a flighty, weak-willed boy these days." (16.342-4). Is he correct? What reason do we have that he is prepared for this confrontation? What have we seen regarding his courage? His cunning? His ability to fight?

What a Tangled Web We Weave When We Practice to Deceive

Odysseus tells two elaborate lies in Books 13 (to Athena) and Book 14 (to Eumaeus) about his identity, his history and his reasons for coming to Ithaca. There is an old saying "once a liar, always a liar." Does the fact that Odysseus has the capacity to fabricate such lies cast doubt on the veracity of his story in Books 9-12? Or does something about the content of the stories (e. g. he admits to mistakes of judgment) or his situation in Phaecia (e. g . they have already demonstrated they are superb hosts) suggest he is truthful? Or perhaps he doesn't tell boldfaced lies but bends the truth a little? Does it call into question the truth of the entire epic itself?

What Did I Do to Deserve This?

In Book 13 Poseidon demonstrates the "down side " of divine disfavor: he destroys the Phaecian ship that returned Odyssey to his home and blockaded their harbor. On the other hand, Athena shows the benefits of divine approval: she alerts Odysseus to the suitors in his palace and helps him plan his revenge (including an impeccable disguise). Do these people deserve their fates? Are the gods acting as defenders of justice and the moral order (much as Rama defends dharma in the Ramayana)? Or are the gods acting purely to satisfy their personal agendas? Do the Phaecians or Odysseus have an choice or control in gaining disapproval or favor from the gods -- or is it completely arbitrary? Why does Athena help Odysseus but turn a blind eye to the troubles that result when Agamemnon returns?

Fame -- I Want to Live Forever

Odysseus demonstrates a passionate desire for kleos or fame through much of the Odyssey. Consider, for example, his taunting Polyphemus with his name as he escapes his island (and there are other examples) Yet, is it presented as an unequivocally good pursuit? Does the search for kleos help or hinder his journey? What about situations in which he disguises his identity? What is the importance of kleos to Odysseus and the Odyssey (the two may not be the same answer)?

In Media Res: Narrative vs. Chronological Order

In class we observed the narrative order of the Odyssey, the order the event are retold in the epic, are different from the chronological order, the order the events occur in time. The epic begins in media res, literally in the middle of things. What is ONE reason that the story begins in this way? Why doesn't the story begin with Odysseus leaving Troy?

I'll Follow You to Hell and Back: Odyssey's Leadership

Odysseus leaves Troy with nine ships full of men. By the time he is rescued by Calypso, however, all his men have perished. Furthermore, it takes him a full ten years to find his way home. Is Odysseus a good leader who is just cursed by the gods? A good leader with a mutinous crew? Or is he a poor leader who causes his own problems because of misplaced ideals, or reckless behavior or poor leadership skills? Or perhaps somewhere in between or none of the above? Explain your answer using examples from the text to support your point.

"The Great Teller of Tales"

At the beginning of Book 9, just before he tells the Phaeacians about his ill-fated journey, Odysseus is described as "the great teller of tales." In a sense, then, Odysseus is bard. What are his motives in telling his tale? Does he have the same motives as other bards in the story (such as Demodocus in Book 8)? Does his tale serve the same purpose or a different one? Finally, we know that Odysseus is a master of deceit and guile who concocted the scheme for the Tojan Horse. Should we take his story of one-eyed monsters and visits to the underworld at face value? Is there reason to believe his story is a fabrication?

The Guest-Host Relationship

Thus far in the Odyssey, both Telemachus and Odysseus have been strangers in a strange land. What kind of reception did they receive? What does this reception tell us about the duties of a host? Do guests have a corresponding duty? What is the ideal guest-host relationship?

Fathers and Sons

During Telemachus' journey to Pylos and Sparta in Books 3 and 4, he meets or hears about several fathers and sons. From these relationships, what can we learn about the proper relationship between father and son in Bronze Age Greece? What are a father's duties to his son -- and a son's duties to his father? What does a father teach his son?

Growing Up

At the beginning of the Odyssey, Telemachus seems young and powerless. He is completely passive in the face of the suitors abuses and they treat him like a pushover. As he embarks on a journey and the epic wears on, how and why does the character of Telemachus change?

Whose Fault Is it Anyway?

Zeus complains in Book I of the Odyssey:
Ah how shameless--the way these mortals blame the gods.
From us alone, they say, come all their miseries, yes,
but they themselves, with their own reckless ways,
compound their pains beyond their proper share (1.37-40).

What is Zeus saying? Is he right? Whose fault is it anyway that Odysseus has been wandering for ten years -- that the suitors are eating him out of house and home?